Are we defined by our genes? For the past century, the quest to understand and control heredity has dominated science and society. From agricultural fields to political battlegrounds, genetics has shaped the modern world in profound and often controversial ways. This course explores the complex history of the gene, tracing its journey from an abstract concept to the blueprint of life itself. We will chronicle the major breakthroughs and conflicts that defined the "century of the gene," paying close attention to the global and European contexts:

• Promise and Peril (Early 20th Century): We'll explore the rediscovery of Mendel's laws, which brought new crops and fruits, alongside the dark rise of the eugenics movement across Europe and North America, leading to forced sterilization and genocide.
• The Secret of Life (Mid-Century): We'll cover the Cold War race to understand the effects of radiation on heredity and the monumental discovery of DNA's structure by European-based scientists, which unlocked the genetic code.
• The Biotech Revolution (Late Century): We'll examine the birth of a new era with "test-tube babies," the patenting of living organisms, the rise of big pharma, and the launch of the international Human Genome Project.

Background.
Debates over "nature" vs. "nurture"—what it is in our DNA, what is heritable but not in our DNA, and what has little to do with our heredity altogether—are questions with a long history. Genetics has played such a central role in the history of the twentieth century—from agricultural improvement to human eugenics, and from concerns over Cold War fall-out to the rise of industrial biotech and big pharma—that one prominent scholar has labeled the twentieth century "the century of the gene." In this course we will explore not only the complex story of geneticists' quest to understand and ultimately to control the hereditary substance and to reveal the "secret of life," but also the larger social, political, economic, medical, and legal contexts and ramifications of such efforts. At the dawn of the century, the hereditary factors were unknown and unnamed, but the "rediscovery" of Mendel and new turns in experimental breeding brought new crops, new fruits, and new hopes for plants and people alike. By mid-century, thousands of people had been forcibly sterilized or killed in the name of eugenics, even as "genes" were identified, the structure of DNA determined, and the genetic code cracked. By century's end, test-tube babies had been born, oil-eating bacteria had been created (and patented), and the human genome had been sequenced, even as ideas of informed consent, intellectual property, racialized and personalized medicine, and the proper relations of science and business—and science and society more generally—remained contested. And anything written in this last sentence about our current moment will doubtless be out of date by some other amazing complicated advance a few days later (such as the advent of "mirror life").

From farm field and laboratory bench to the industrial plant and the highest courts, the twentieth century (and maybe even the twenty-first!) is without a doubt, well understood as the century of the gene.

No preliminary knowledge is required.

Our Approach.
The history of science is not just names, dates, and discoveries—the history of science is fundamentally about reasons, connections, causes, evidence, and explanations. Studying science in this way—from a historical perspective—will make us better placed to evaluate and critically appreciate the role of science in our modern world. In this class, we will be using both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are documents that help bring the voices of the past to life. As you read these documents, read them with an attitude of charitable interpretation—they may often express ideas that are considerably foreign to us and our established ways of thinking, or may be expressed in a style unfamiliar to us. When approaching these texts, try to remember that these authors were among the most intelligent people of their generation and place. Try to believe that what they say about the nature of the world or our heredity as if that were really how it was—after all, they believed it was that way, and it is this changing history of beliefs that we are most interested in. Reading this way will help you avoid the twin dangers for a historian of presentism (using our contemporary categories or judgments to think about the past) and progressivism (assuming that everything has led onwards and upwards where we are today).

When turning to the secondary sources—the varied interpretations that historians have made of the documents and artifacts these people have left behind—you will see how scholars try to relate the content of scientific knowledge to the social worlds in which our historical scientists lived their lives, and how even these historical efforts themselves have a history.

Learning Outcomes.
This course traces the history of genetics, from early theories of heredity to the molecular revolution and the age of genomics. It is designed to introduce you to the history of genetics and the rise of eugenics, exploring their profound scientific, epistemic, social, ethical, and political impacts. We will explore the key experiments, conceptual breakthroughs, and technological innovations that established genetics as a core biological science to understand how scientific knowledge about inheritance has been generated, debated, and refined over time. We will also examine how scientific theories of heredity were constructed, debated, and applied in different historical contexts, from the 19th century to the present day. A central goal of this course is to develop your skills in historical research, critical analysis, and ethical reasoning.

By the end of this semester, you will be able to:

• Describe the key scientific discoveries, historical events, and influential figures that shaped the history of genetics and eugenics, from Mendelian inheritance to the Human Genome Project and CRISPR.
• Distinguish between major theoretical frameworks and experimental traditions, such as classical, population, and molecular genetics, and challenge oversimplified "eureka" narratives of scientific progress by analyzing the complex, often non-linear path of research, including the controversies, dead ends, and collaborative efforts involved.
• Analyze foundational scientific papers and experimental data to understand how key genetic theories were developed, tested, and accepted by the scientific community.
• Situate the development of genetics within its broader historical and institutional contexts, including the influence of agricultural research, medical advancements, and events like the rise of the eugenics movement.
• Analyze how scientific ideas about heredity were used to justify social inequalities, discriminatory public policies, and human rights atrocities, particularly in the context of the eugenics movement.
• Evaluate a wide range of primary sources, including scientific reports, legal statutes, eugenic propaganda, and personal testimonies, to understand the diverse perspectives and lived experiences of the past.
• Identify an author's argument and perspective within scholarly texts, situating their work within broader historiographical and ethical debates in the history of science, medicine, and technology.
• Construct a clear and compelling scholarly argument, supported by appropriate evidence, that critically engages with the complex relationship between science, society, and ethics.
• Challenge simplistic assumptions about genetic determinism, scientific objectivity, and progress, and articulate nuanced positions on contemporary debates surrounding genetic engineering and reproductive technologies.
• Synthesize course concepts to analyze how the legacy of eugenics continues to influence modern genetics, medicine, and social policy.

Required Texts

• Matthew Cobb, As Gods (2022) ISBN 1541602854
• James Watson, The Double Helix (1968); available many places online, but if you would like your own copy, the Norton Critical Edition including the reviews is recommended. ISBN 0393950751
• Hans-Jörg Rheinberger and Staffan Müller-Wille, The Gene: From Genetics to Postgenomics (2017) ISBN 0226510002
• Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (1932), available many places online (you should read this book at least once in your life)

The primary platform for this class will be Moodle, which will contain other assigned readings and materials, including assignments. Readings are to be completed prior to the class they are assigned. Please note that the amount of reading for each class meeting may vary considerably; plan accordingly.

Assignments and Grading Policy. Course assignments include three papers, a variable number of reading summaries, a midterm, and a final exam. The grade you will receive in this course will be based on the quality of the work you perform and the understanding you demonstrate.

• Papers (3 papers, each worth 15%): 45%
• Midterm: 20%
• Final Exam: 25%
• Summaries/Attendance/Engagement: 10%

Papers.
Over the course of the term, you will be assigned three papers in which you will conduct your own analysis, drawing on the assigned readings and lecture material (approximately 5–7 pages each). You will have approximately two to three weeks to complete each paper. Further instructions and expectations for papers will be shared later during the term.

Reading Summaries. There will also be occasional "quizzes," which will consist of a one-paragraph summary and reflection on one of the day's assigned readings (your choice). This is primarily intended as a study tool for your own edification. A quiz/summary must be written before class, and must be ready for immediate submission if requested. If you have done the assigned reading and prepared a summary, you will be fully prepared for the prospect of a "quiz." There is a one-in-four chance of a "quiz" on any given day of lecture. As a reward for having read the syllabus carefully up to this point, you may use the phrase "San Servolo" as your answer on any one quiz this term. This will count for full credit on one day when you have forgotten your summary.

Midterm and Final Examination.
Midterm and final examinations will have questions drawn from the lectures, readings, and discussions.

Course Protocol and Technology Policy
The history of genetics is a story of intense focus—from Gregor Mendel meticulously tracking traits in his pea garden to the teams of scientists racing to decipher the structure of DNA. To grapple with this history and its complex ethical dimensions, we will adopt a protocol that honors this tradition of deep, singular attention. This policy is a core part of our pedagogical method, designed to cultivate the focus required to understand both the science and its societal impact.

The Laboratory of the Mind. The great breakthroughs in genetics required creating environments free from distraction. In this course, we will secure our classroom as a similar space for dedicated inquiry. All personal electronic devices, including phones and laptops, must be silenced and put away for the duration of our class meetings. By removing the constant stream of digital notifications, we create a space for deep thinking and direct intellectual engagement with the material and with one another. This allows us to more fully immerse ourselves in the scientific and ethical problems of the past.

The Practice of Inquiry. Understanding the history of science requires more than just accessing facts; it demands active listening, interpreting complex texts, and tracing the development of ideas through sustained conversation. Our analog-first approach is a deliberate practice in this art. We will rely on discussion, debate, and handwritten notes to build our collective understanding, much like a scientist would use a lab notebook to synthesize observations and formulate new questions. This method fosters the cognitive skills essential for analyzing a foundational scientific paper or navigating a complex bioethical debate.

You may use a tablet for note-taking, but it must be kept flat on the table and its wireless capabilities disabled. Studies have shown that students who take notes by hand—summarizing and rephrasing as they write—demonstrate greater conceptual understanding and recall. This practice of synthesis is a foundational skill for any historian or scientist. Whatever method you choose, be sure to summarize the day's key points afterward; it's an invaluable study technique.

For more on the pedagogical reasoning behind this approach, you might appreciate: Ezekiel Emanuel, "Here's What Happened When I Made My College Students Put Away Their Phones," New York Times, August 21, 2025.

Engagement
The questions we will confront are profound, disturbing, and even, at times, existential. Your full engagement in the study of this important topic is requested. Be present, and come prepared. Think hard, and share what you are thinking with others. Grow outside of your first thoughts about a topic, and explore another way of thinking and understanding.

You could be anywhere else during our class time. But if you're taking this class, you will have made a commitment that this—whatever is going right here, right now, in class—is where your attention and energies are going to be. So let's honor that commitment and be here together, without distractions, in this special place we call a classroom. You and your family have worked hard to bring you this opportunity; make the most of it.

Lecture Schedule
Successful completion of this course will require that you attend class, actively engage with course material, and complete the assigned written work and exam.

A detailed weekly schedule of readings and topics will be provided..

Main themes:

Mendel's Bones and Mutant Babies: Why Study the History of Heredity?

The Prince of Peas: Mendel, The Man, and the Myth.

Biotopias

From the Death of Darwinism to the Mutation Theory.

The Dawn of Classical Genetics.

Eugenics I: Positive Eugenics.

Eugenics II: Negative Eugenics.

Eugenics III: Future Eugenics.

The Modern Synthesis: From Eugenics to Medical Genetics.

The First Genetic Engineers: Mutation Breeding.

Communist Lysenkoism: Heredity, the Environment, and the Gulag.

The Double Helix.

The Rise of Molecular Biology.

Eugenics IV

Asilomar: The Recombinant DNA Debate.

"The Asilomar conference represented an important beginning in the analysis by scientists of the social consequences of their work." — Science for the People, spring 1975.

Asilomar: Town/Gown Gene Relations: The Mayor vs. the Scientists.

Biotechnology and Big Business.

The Human Genome Project.

The Human Genome Diversity Project.

Gene Therapy.

 "So, I break the glass": Lulu, Nana, & #CRISPRBabies.

Mirror Life and Future Frontiers: Governing Synthetic Biology.

Other sessions as desired to be selected from:
Agriculture, Inc.
GMO Controversies;
Genetic Medicine and Gene Therapy;
Gay Genes;
Genial Genes: Countering Genic Reductionism;
Icelandic Genes;
Native Genes;
Genetics and Informed Consent;
Personal Genomics;
Social Genomics;
Conservation Genetics: Gene Drives and De-Extinction;
Ancient DNA and Human Diversity: Promises and Pitfalls?;
Postgenomics.

Last updated:March 30, 2026